CODEBOOK

indigenous livelihoods Indigenous livelihoods, rooted in nomadic pastoralism, are worth safeguarding due to their inherent value (as cultural diversity and sustainability) or on a rights basis. These livelihoods are under threat. This is distinct from #nationalism.

myangat Excessive herd sizes are promoted by misguided policies of honouring the largest-scale herders with titles such as 'myangat' and awards such as 'sain malchin'. Mongolia's government should instead recognize herders who have intensified production, achieving higher yields from smaller herds, or reimpose a quota system.

destructive mining Mining development causes ecological degradation and contributes to desertification through unsustainable use of water and land erosion caused by increased traffic.

traceability The lack of traceability presents a major governability challenge for cashmere commodity chains. As fibres are aggregated before they reach processors, it is difficult to incentivize (or increase accountability) for quality and sustainability at the supplier level. Based on this problem attribution, successful traceability measures should support more sustainable cashmere production.

low productivity The efficiency of resource conversion in cashmere production is extremely low. It takes six goats to produce a cashmere sweater, meaning that mass production can never be sustainable.

producer well being Well-being is an important dimension of economic activity.

direct to consumer marketing Companies that engage in a direct relationship with their consumers can build brand loyalty but also develop an efficient, responsive distribution system that can reduce overall costs. These two factors can potentially reinforce #transformative-values (through a 'personal' relationship with the consumer) and support #fair-trade (by passing along greater profits to the supplier).

csr Corporate Social Responsibility. Corporations have an ethical duty to ensure that the people working for them, or in areas where they ate, are not adversely affected by corporate actions. This is a form of self-regulation that positions that corporation as 'responsible' in the sense of being aware of, and proactive about, its potential impacts.

carbon neutral Cashmere goats are carbon-neutral.

misleading marketing Cashmere is labelled as being from Mongolia, or as being sustainably produced, but consumer expectations may not align with reality.

too many herders Overgrazing is caused by too many people attempting to make a living from cashmere production. Possibly tied to proposed interventions to support alternative (urban) livelihoods, increased processing (vs. raw production), and the consolidation or reduction of herds. May be interpreted as a herder deficit or as a structural problem (e.g., poverty, lack of meaningful income alternatives).

indigenous breeds Sustainable production requires indigenous (non-improved) livestock breeds.

nationalism As articulated by domestic producers (e.g., Mongolians in Mongolia) this is an appeal to the value of national survival and self-determination, with reference to a national heritage. The narrative can encompass elements such as wisdom of ancestors, a 'nomadic worldview', ancient history, traditions, and cultural identity.

trade agreements Legislated trade agreements can be used to encourage sustainable production, by reducing tariffs on certified goods. This process is similar to some market-based initiatives but takes place at an intergovernental level (or may be applied unilaterally by a major importer).

rangeland quality High-quality rangeland will produce higher-quality cashmere. The inverse formulation of #rangeland-degradation and #overgrazing.

natural fibre Cashmere is a natural fibre. See also #organic-fibre.

herder expenses As standards of living have risen and integration with a market economy has increased, herders' cash expenses have correspondingly risen. The need for greater cash has contributed to unsustainable pastoral production, exceeding carrying capacity of grasslands.

scarcity Cashmere is a 'scarce' product insofar as very small amounts of wool can be obtained from each goat, and the production process is labour-intensive. The message associated with this frame is often that 'it takes four goats to produce a single cashmere sweater'.

livestock tax Government should impose a tax on grazing livestock to ensure that the ecological costs of grazing are included in commodity prices.

recycled cashmere It is desirable to reuse and recycle textiles in general. Cashmere garments may be considered sustainable if they are created from post-consumer recycled fibres (i.e., without virgin fibres).

ecological degradation Textiles production, and specifically cashmere production, causes ecological degradation. This may specifically take the form of #desertification. The mechanism for degradation in Mongolia is #overgrazing.

disruption To achieve ethical and sustainable production it is necessary to 'disrupt' the cashmere industry.

grading Better sorting and grading of cashmere is necessary to achieve sustainability.

poor cashmere quality from overgrazing Overgrazing has led to reduced rangeland productivity and increased competition among goats for forage resources. The reduction in nourishment has led to poor cashmere quality. Declining quality may also be attributed to the lack of market controls (#quantity-over-quality).

local processing Cashmere needs to be produced locally (in Mongolia) in order to be sustainable. Local processing -- as opposed to export of raw cashmere -- creates added value without increasing actual cashmere production levels. It also generates employment. Cashmere processing is a major option for poverty reduction.

market transition Sustainability or productivity issues can generally be explained by the transition from a command economy to a free market system. Specific factors here may include the lack of #governance or #inadequate-investments. The abandonment of quotas may also be associated with a tragedy of the commons scenario.

renewable export Cashmere can allow Mongolia to escape its dependence on mineral exports.

social business Cashmere businesses can contribute to sustainable development if they place social impacts ahead of profitability.

fatalism There is nothing to be done that can resolve the issue of overgrazing.

integration An integrated supply chain provides the means to monitor and control all aspects of production, including sustainability. See #traceability.

herder empowerment Sustainable production can be achieved by 'empowering' herders.

sensoriality Wearing cashmere garments is a luxurious experience. This is not directly related to sustainability, however it contributes to the #luxury-cashmere frame (along with #taste).

awards See also #myangat. New awards should honour herders who successfully breed goats using sustainable practices.

transparency There is a need for communication across the value chain, including with consumers.

fair trade Ethical and sustainable production can be encouraged successfully through market-based interventions that provide premiums to producers in exchange for adherence to fair trade principles. The premium may be an accounting for the added costs to producers, in addition to operating as an incentive. An international organization will be the lead actor in this relationship.

human health Some textiles impose negative impacts on human health, specifically among producers. For non-cashmere textiles, this can involve exposure to chemical pollutants due to production (e.g., fertilizer for cotton). There may be toxicity concerns related to the textile itself, particularly after disposal.

philanthropy An ethical business contributes to philanthropic or charitable endeavours. Such activity may relate directly to sustainability if it involves the donation of unsold inventory, contribution to practices that enhance the sustainability of suppliers' livelihoods, etc. Similar to #social-business.

veganism Any animal-based products are inherently unacceptable. Natural cashmere therefore cannot be an appropriate clothing choice from a vegan standpoint. This claim may be associated, in sustainability discourse, with statements advocating plant-based fibres or with discussions of #animal-cruelty.

tragedy of the commons Mongolian rangelands are subject to an 'open access' property regime. In the absence of land tenure and #collective-action, rangeland users will not invest in sustainable production as they stand to gain more from over-appropriation of the resource.

china overproduction Cashmere supply is excessive due to overproduction in China, supported by government policy.

circular fashion See https://www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/our-work/activities/make-fashion-circular. Circular fashion is a specific form of #second-hand-clothing use, as it involves fashion items.

consumer demand The ultimate cause of ecological damage in Mongolia is over-production to meet global consumer demand. Sustainability-focused interventions should thus address consumer demand first. A demand-side intervention can involve either shifting herders out of production, OR reducing production through increased price levels (#cashmere-price-too-low).

long term relationships Long-term business relationships are likely to be more 'ethical' than short-term, anonymous relationships. This may involve a reference to 'trusted partners'.

affordable cashmere Sustainable clothing should be affordable to everyone. Low cashmere prices are a good thing as they render cashmere garments accessible / affordable to a larger number of consumers, creating a potential for growth in the sector. (Sustainability issues may be addressed separately from volume.)

grasslands restoration Sustainable producers should contribute to the conservation or restoration of degraded grasslands.

carbon footprint Goats have a carbon footprint that may mitigate positive ecological attributes of natural fibre production.

animal cruelty Combing of cashmere goats is a cruel practice that causes unnecessary harm to animals. This claim may be associated with the understanding that goats are handled roughly during combing, that they are deprived of wool necessary to keep them warm in a frigid climate, or that they are raised generally under poor conditions.

affect Sustainable consumerism is associated with positive affect.

volatile prices Instability of cashmere prices contributes to herders' inability to produce cashmere at stable, sustainable levels. A sudden drop in commodity prices may wipe out much of a household's projected annual income. Price fluctuations may be related to the activity of private traders and intermediaries, #chenj. Large herd sizes are a response to uncertainty.

influencer marketing See also #transformative-values.

breeding Sustainable production requires improved livestock breeds, or selective breeding.

herder debt Herders experience high levels of household debt. This has the effect of keeping them in poverty and preventing them from investing in improved, diversified, or otherwise more sustainable forms of production; it also places artificial demands on them to produce more to achieve a reasonable standard of living.

partnerships Efforts to build sustainable commodity chains require collaborations between different actors. These need to transcend individual brands.

disposability The opposite of sustainable practices is the use of disposable consumer goods and the mindset of disposability. In the context of the fashion industry, a mitigating trend is #slow-fashion.

fair price Fair pricing should be offered to suppliers.

quality Cashmere garments themselves should be of high quality. The quality (thickness) of cashmere fibres should also be maintained. This may relate to #breeding, #grading, #animal-welfare, or #rangeland-quality.

herd composition The proportion of goats to other livestock in herds is a problem. More balanced herds can be sustainable.

consumer self awareness Consumers are becoming increasingly self-aware, understanding the global impacts of their choices. As consumer awareness is linked to increased knowledge, this frame may be associated with support for increased research and awareness-raising campaigns (targeting consumers). It may also be associated with demands placed on producers and designers.

dust storms Dust storms, attributable to overgrazing and desertification, reach sites beyond Mongolia's borders (potentially as far as California). Rangeland health is therefore an issue of global impact, deserving international attention.

technology evangelism Advanced technology can successfully bring engineered solutions to sustainability problems. Relevant technologies may pertain to the areas of computing, communications networking, and remote sensing. Sharing of technological solutions by companies in highly developed countries can ensure that no one is left behind in sustainable development. Successful adoption of engineered solutions requires strong efforts to market their value to a prospective user base.

threatened cashmere industry If current processes continue, the cashmere sector will not survive.

small scale producers Supporting small-scale producers is inherently a good thing. From an economic perspective, small-scale producers are innovative and drive production. From a development perspective, they need to be supported.

pastoralism livestock wellbeing Mobile pastoralism is good for livestock because herds are free-roaming and able to graze independently. Humane production.

organic fibres Organic fibres are preferable to synthetic fibres as they are biodegradeable and come from renewable resources.

traditionalism Cultural traditionalism manifests in a political resistance to changes to the herding sector that would ensure its long-term sustainability. In particular, this includes resistance to grasslands regulation (to avoid #tragedy-of-the-commons by shifting away from an open-access property regime) or to modern (foreign) herding techniques.

supply driven overproduction Higher production levels of cashmere are driven by increased supply of raw cashmere

biodiversity offsets According to IUCN, these are 'measurable conservation outcomes designed to compensate for adverse and unavoidable impacts of projects, in addition to prevention and mitigation measures already implemented'. 'The aim of offsets is to achieve No Net Loss (NNL) and preferably a Net Gain (NG) of biodiversity when projects take place.'

organic farming Sustainable agricultural production is organic: it does not use chemical fertilizers and pesticides or antibiotics.

collective action Collective action by herders can overcome #rangeland-degradation. Rangeland degradation may be explicitly attributed to a #tragedy-of-the-commons, however collective action can also take forms that are inspired by #fair-trade or other frames. Cooperatives, pasture user groups, and similar collectivities may be assumed as the ideal base units of participation in #development initiatives.

modernization Material progress and technology are drivers of development.

herd management Goat herds should be managed to optimize efficiency and productivity, by culling older animals, maximizing revenue from secondary products, investing in better livestock, etc.

animal welfare A concern for the welfare of animals (goats), not necessarily expressed in negative terms (#animal-cruelty) but as a positive aspiration.

quantity over quality The lack of market controls has incentivized herders to produce quantity over quality. There are no significant price premiums for higher-quality cashmere, and grading processes are poor. This microeconomic frame describes breeding and production strategies that deliberately increase cashmere weight (e.g., by interbreeding goats to produce higher volumes of coarser cashmere), as opposed to the ecological competition frame (#poor-cashmere-quality-from-overgrazing).

durability Sustainable textiles are durable; they do not lose their shape, wear thin, or lose warmth as they age.

desertification Mongolia's grasslands are turning into deserts; this is (or is likely to be) an irreversible process. The proximate cause is #overgrazing, which may be linked to cashmere goat production.

designer overproduction Overuse of cashmere within the fashion industry has driven overproduction in Mongolia.

enclosure Enclosure of rangelands for hay production or intensive pasture grazing can improve the productivity and sustainability of livestock herding.

transformative values Ethics and sustainability are associated with the values and mission of ethical actors. Supporting sustainable cashmere involves buying from companies who prioritize sustainability as an inherently important value. Sustainability and ethics are potentially manifested through an evolving approach based on core values, rather than through a fixed set of criteria. As such, truth claims may be evaluated with greater emphasis on intentionality than on objective measures (i.e., rules or specific evidence).

environmental accounting Accounting for environmental costs can guide sustainable production. See for example the EP&L model used by Kering and Stella McCartney. #biodiversity-offsets is also used by Rio Tinto.

pure cashmere Pure cashmere is of higher quality than mixed fibres. There are also associations of quality (purity as being unadulterated, safe), and purely natural.

pastoralism biodiversity Mobile pastoralism contributes to the biodiversity of grassland ecosystems, due to the co-evolution of livestock and grassland vegetation species.

herder poverty from low prices Low / depressed cashmere prices cause poverty among herders and reduce their welfare.

social economy Market transactions should primarily be valued in terms of social relations rather than their financial utility.

supporting designers Appeals to support young, brave, honest designers for the stories they tell through their lives and their creativity.

native authority The 'native' cashmere producer -- an individual designer or business from Mongolia -- is better positioned to speak authoritatively on the quality and sustainability of cashmere. This connects to the biography of individual designers like #Mandkhai.

densification Herders are making use of smaller land areas, causing more intensive damage.

no cashmere Fashion retailers should refrain from carrying (virgin) cashmere garments as cashmere production is inherently unsustainable.

exoticism Mongolia is an exotic locale. The value of (sustainable) cashmere comes partly from the mystique of its association with a foreign and 'timeless' culture. This perspective may be encountered in travelogues. For example: Goats and Yaks are the companions of the nomads in this unforgiving environment. Every gust of wind and every harsh winter night in their world shape the long fine threads that make Mongolian cashmere and Yak wool some of the most desirable materials on the planet. (Born of Nomad Cashmere, 2020, p. 3) Nomads respect the land on which they live, caring for the animals in their charge like no other. This unique, symbiotic connection with the world around them enables them to preserve their environment on the Mongolian plateau, keeping it, as it would have been centuries earlier. (Born of Nomad Cashmere, 2020, pp. 1-2) The term "nomads" implies #exoticism , but the message comes from a more Indigenous frame ("pastoralists have lived in harmony with their environment from time immemorial")

development Designers and retailers can achieve sustainable procurement by supporting and working with conventional international development initiatives. Such initiatives will involve collaborations between government, non-governmental organizations, international donors, development agencies, technical consultants, and others. This work is designed to 'help' and 'empower' herders and to 'improve' their livelihoods.

indigenous sustainability Indigenous people have lived sustainably from time immemorial. They can be treated as an inspiration for mindfulness.

non toxicity See #human-health.

grasslands decline history Narratives about how grass was formerly lush and abundant.

taste Preference for cashmere is an indicator of taste. This may be associated with other factors: luxury, practicality, ethics, personal identity, etc. Description of the fashion qualities of cashmere garments indirectly articulates taste value, which may be described in terms of individual style but can also be analyzed in terms of social identity.

blockchain Blockchain technology can improve the #traceability of cashmere. More broadly, it is linked to an approach in which sustainability is defined as a technical problem (i.e., one that is amenable to technical solutions) and to an association of advanced technology with development. “A pilot with technology provider Covergence.tech used Ethereumbased blockchain technology to interact with over 70 different herders and 8 cooperatives.” (Huang, 2019, p. 3) The latter part of the article outlines the pilot, whereby herders used RFID tags and an Android app to label their cashmere bundles. See also the Convergence.tech report.

local consumption Consumption of locally-produced commodities is most sustainable. Local consumption supports local production, which may be inherently desirable but also more open to scrutiny (e.g., for labour and ecological practices) and legal oversight. Local consumption involves less waste in transportation. It may be deemed more 'fair' in general since the commodity chain is not built on exploitative economic relations, but may also involve a #moral-economy.

self sufficiency Sustainable agricultural production is self-sufficient: it does not rely on external inputs and it operates independently of large agribusiness (e.g., contracts with GMO seed suppliers).

china price fixing Cashmere prices are depressed or volatile due to price fixing by the Chinese government

threatened herders If current processes continue, herders (mobile pastoralists) will not be able to survive. They will not be able to feed their livestock. Herders may end up impoverished and pushed to urban slum areas.

pressure for quality Herders are pressured to produce higher-quality cashmere, even though expectations may be unrealistic. Herders are expected to take responsibility for factors over which they have little control, with inadequate structural interventions.

natural beauty Natural beauty encompasses mainly cosmetics, but can extend to clothing and fashion accessories as well. The goal is to look good but also sustainable.

branding A corollary of #luxury-cashmere and #fair-trade. Sustainable commodities need to be distinguished from mass-produced ones. The distinct branding creates value that may both support higher retail prices (premium) and provide an incentive to producers. Sustainability branding in the Mongolian context can be associated with #nationalism, as a 'national brand'.

livestock insurance Mitigating risk can improve herder livelihoods. Livestock insurance, as a financialization or risk, shifts mitigation response away from livestock to economic capital. Insurance can thus accommodate smaller herd sizes.

frictionless ethical consumerism It should be possible to be 'sustainable' in one's consumer choices without having to think about them.

holism Standards or interventions need to be holistic and integrative.

textile comparison Consumers should make informed choices about textiles, which can be ranked by sustainability. Some or all sustainability measures may be relative to alternative commodities, rather than measured against absolute indicators. Substituting alternative textiles for cashmere may be desirable.

herder rights Recognizing and supporting herders' land tenure, customary rights, and political interests is important to ensure the viability of sustainable cashmere production.

ethical sourcing Generic ethical sourcing

biodiversity conservation Herders must engage in conservation activities to offset the impacts of livestock grazing.

corporate sustainability A general approach to reducing waste as a good business practice, which is both environmentally responsible and financially prudent.

luxury cashmere Cashmere is or should be considered a luxury product. Cashmere possesses qualities that are appropriate to the luxury bracket: softness, history of association with the luxury market and high-end design, higher cost than 'disposable' garments, higher maintenance than synthetics, exoticism, etc. The luxury value may be threatened by mass production (#cashmere-price-too-low).

climate change Climate change (as distinct from herder activity / overgrazing) leads to rangeland impoverishment and the loss of livestock through drought and extreme weather. Alternatively (or additionally) climate change results in lower-quality cashmere or lower productivity.

goats reproduction Goats take over herds, crowding out other livestock.

waste The production of many textiles involves wasteful use of water or energy. The textiles themselves may be wasteful if they are non-durable and non-biodegradeable. The textiles industry is one of the most wasteful on Earth.

rangeland management Better rangeland management can improve or guarantee sustainability of cashmere production.

rangeland degradation A specific form of #ecological-degradation. May or may not be directly attributed to cashmere production and #overgrazing.

hand weaving Textiles that are woven by hand contribute to producer livelihoods, are of high quality, and can fetch high prices as scarce goods.

threatened wildlife Degraded grasslands can endanger wildlife.

moral economy Sustainable production and consumption must be guided by an ethics of 'fair price' rather than 'optimal price' for the buyer or seller. Where cashmere trade is unsustainable, it is a result of the logic of capitalism. This frame may be, but is not necessarily, associated with #fair-trade as market-based intervention.

organic fibre arts Cashmere can be used as a source material in organic fibre and textile artwork. In this instance, the value is primarily aesthetic.

standards The lack of standards contributes to the poor quality and unsustainable production of cashmere. The introduction of product standards may impose accountability on producers and favour quality over quantity. May be linked to #fair-trade as a process for implementing standards as a market-based intervention. See references to specific certification marks.

women empowerment Empowerment of women is desirable. Involvement of women in the cashmere industry can empower them.

slow fashion 'Fast fashion' contributes unnecessarily to global waste. Sustainable fashion is slow; garments are designed to be durable and wearable for many years without becoming dated.

technical expertise Technical expert knowledge (and experts) can provide guidance for sustainable development and production. This includes a reliance on science, technology, and engineering.

eco-friendly Production must be environmentally friendly.

natural design Design (of garments or other products) can reproduce the organic beauty of the natural grasslands, fostering mindfulness and respect.

poverty reduction Sustainable cashmere can reduce poverty.

overgrazing There are too many cashmere goats in Mongolia. The number of goats exceeds rangeland carrying capacity. This assertion may be associated with factual information about increased numbers of goats, changing herd composition, numbers of herders, density of goats, etc.

threatened rangelands If current processes continue, rangelands will be permanently destroyed.

dzud Extreme weather events are more common due to overgrazing, and create increased vulnerability / insecurity among herders.

fair labour The production of many textiles involves exploitative labour practices. Producers do not earn a fair income. The commodity chain may involve child labour and forced labour. Workers are not granted appropriate breaks and holidays, safe working conditions, maternity leave, etc.

destructive goats Goats are particularly destructive to rangelands due to their grazing habits. By uprooting palatable vegetation, they cause desertification or the transition of a landscape into one dominated by invasive or otherwise undesirable species. Other livestock species are inherently more sustainable. Consumers may be advised to seek animal-based fibres from animals that graze more lightly or more selectively. Herders may be encouraged to keep mixed herds.

inadequate investments There are not enough capital investments in cashmere production at the supply level. Such investments might come from herders themselves (e.g., through PUGs) or from outside collaborators. The lack of investment fosters a logic of short-term appropriation (resource use) as opposed to long-term sustainability.

sanctions There are no sanctions or penalties for cashmere producers who operate unsustainably, abuse their livestock, adulterate goods, etc. This is primarily a governance issue.

cashmere price too low Cashmere prices are too low. There is a focus on quantity (mass production, affordability) over quality. Mass-market cashmere is unsustainable, whereas #luxury-cashmere might resolve the problem. For the Government of Mongolia, interventions to raise prices should occur at the supply side through a commodities exchange that circumvents brokers (#chenj).

financial stability Low-risk, stable production is desirable for domestic processors.

governance Sustainable production requires a strong regulatory regime. Governance may be combined with private sector action, but self-governance is inadequate where commodity chains are fragmented and located across multiple sites.

sustainably sourced Cashmere must be obtained from sustainable sources. By implication, sustainability criteria are established by the producer and suppliers must demonstrate compliance with those criteria, either through self-regulation or through a system of audits.

second hand clothing Clothing reuse can reduce waste.

global concern Ecological and human sustainability conditions are interconnected globally due to the transnational nature of global commodity chains. Impacts of individual producers' or consumers' actions may not be visible locally, as they may be concentrated in distant locations. See #dust-storms.

sustainability taste Taste for sustainability, as connected to luxury fashion, is a marker of cultural and economic capital.

recycling Recycling is important in general.

audits Ethics and sustainability can and should be ensured through regular audits of suppliers, undertaken by lead companies.

ecological fragility The Earth and its ecosystems are fragile and subject to degradation. The Earth may go past the tipping point if humans do not engage in more sustainable production and consumption. Sustainability may be viewed as #global-concern due to globalization, although the effects of #ecological-degradation may be localized (and potentially invisible to those whose actions have the most impact).

co-evolution Goats and humans have co-evolved in the steppes of Inner Asia. Goats rely on combing each Spring in order to be relieved of excess wool. This is related to the argument that goats herded by humans have co-evolved with grassland vegetation species (#pastoralism-biodiversity). Also encompassed in this frame is the concept of Inner Asian grasslands as a niche ecosystem, and as a necessary determinant for quality cashmere.

chenj Trader intermediaries (*chenj*) are a major obstacle to implementing sustainable production chains in Mongolia. Traders prevent collective action by herders, conspire to depress prices, and may keep herders in perpetual debt indenture (#herder-debt), such that herders are deprived of potential income. As traders are only interested in maximizing short-term profit, they have no motivation to invest in an ethical and sustainable commodity chain -- and indeed their interests may be threatened by initiatives to increase sustainability through collective action.